China
Buddhism
probably arrived in China around the 1st century CE from Central Asia (although
there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during Asoka's reign),
and through to the 8th century it became an extremely active center of
Buddhism.
First known Chinese Buddha statue,
found in a late Han dynasty burial in Sichuan province. Circa 200 CE. The hair,
the moustache and the clothing are strongly indicative of Gandharan influences
("Crossroads of Asia", p.208)
The
year 67 CE saw Buddhism's official introduction to China with the coming of the
two monks Moton and Chufarlan. In 68 CE, under imperial patronage, they
established the White Horse Temple (白馬寺),
which still exists today, close to the imperial capital at Luoyang. By the end
of the second century, a prosperous community had been settled at Pengcheng
(modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu).
The
first known Mahayana scriptural texts are translations made into Chinese by the
Kushan monk Lokaksema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE. Some of the earliest
known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on "money
trees", dated circa 200 CE, in typical Gandharan style (drawing):
"That the imported images accompanying the newly arrived doctrine came
from Gandhara is strongly suggested by such early Gandhara characteristics on
this "money tree" Buddha as the high ushnisha, vertical arrangement
of the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe and parallel incisions for
the folds of the arms." ("Crossroads of Asia" p209)
Maitreya Buddha, Northern Wei, 443
CE.
Buddhism
flourished during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty (618–907). The dynasty was
initially characterized by a strong openness to foreign influences, and renewed
exchanges with Indian culture due to the numerous travels of Chinese Buddhist
monks to India from the 4th to the 11th century. The Tang capital of Chang'an
(today's Xi'an) became an important center for Buddhist thought. From there
Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gain
footholds in Japan.
However
foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the end of the Tang
Dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wu-Tsung outlawed all
"foreign" religions (including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism,
and Buddhism) in order
to support the indigenous Taoism.
Throughout his territory, he confiscated Buddhist possessions, destroyed
monasteries and temples, and executed Buddhist monks, ending Buddhism's
cultural and intellectual dominance.
Pure
Land and Chan Buddhism, however, continued to prosper for some centuries, the
latter giving rise to Japanese Zen. In China, Chan flourished particularly
under the Song dynasty (1127–1279), when its monasteries were great centers of
culture and learning.
Today,
China boasts one of the richest collections of Buddhist arts and heritages in
the world. UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in
Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan province, the
Yungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings
near Chongqing are among the most important and renowned Buddhist sculptural
sites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century
during Tang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is
still the largest stone Buddha statue in the world.
Buddhism
was introduced around 372 CE, when Chinese ambassadors visited the Korean
kingdom of Goguryeo, bringing scriptures and images. Buddhism prospered in
Korea, and in particular Seon (Zen) Buddhism from the 7th century onward.
However, with the beginning of the Confucean Yi Dynasty of the Joseon period in
1392, Buddhism was strongly discriminated against until it was almost
completely eradicated, except for a remaining Seon movement.
Japan
Tile with seated Buddha, Nara
Prefecture, Asuka period, 7th century. Tokyo National Museum.Japan discovered
Buddhism in the 6th century when Korean monks traveled to the islands together
with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhist religion was adopted by
the state in the following century.Being geographically at the end of the Silk
Road, Japan was able to preserve many aspects of Buddhism at the very time it
was disappearing in India, and being suppressed in Central Asia and China.
From
710 CE numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of Nara,
such as the five-story pagoda and Golden Hall of the Horyuji, or the Kofuku-ji
temple. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmental
sponsorship. The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between
the 8th and 13th century during the periods of Nara, Heian, and Kamakura.
From
the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, following the
introduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Zen
art is mainly characterized by original paintings (such as sumi-e and the Enso)
and poetry (especially haikus), striving to express the true essence of the
world through impressionistic and unadorned "non-dualistic"
representations. The search for enlightenment "in the moment" also
led to the development of other important derivative arts such as the Chanoyu
tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flower arrangement. This evolution went as
far as considering almost any human activity as an art with a strong spiritual
and aesthetic content, first and foremost in those activities related to combat
techniques (martial arts).
Buddhism
remains very active in Japan to this day. Around 80,000 Buddhist temples are
preserved and regularly restored.
South-East Asia
During
the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended to be restricted
by the rise in the Middle-East of the Parthian empire, an unvanquished enemy of
Rome, just as
Romans were becoming extremely wealthy and their demand for Asian luxury was
rising. This demand revived the sea connections between the Mediterranean and
China, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time, through trade
connection, commercial settlements, and even political interventions, India
started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linked
India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and
southern Vietnam, and
numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there.
For
more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the major factor
that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the
region. The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with
Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism,
were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian
literature such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
From
the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful empires and
became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. The
main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent,
so that these empires essentially followed the Mahayana faith. The Sri Vijaya
Empire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence,
and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas.
Srivijayan
empire (5th–15th century)
Cambodian Buddha, 14th century.
Srivijaya,
a maritime empire centered at Palembang on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia,
adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulers named the
Sailendras. Yijing described Palembang as a great centre of Buddhist learning
where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. Atisha studied
there before travelling to Tibet as a
missionary.
Sriviijaya
spread Buddhist art
during its expansion in Southeast Asia. Numerous statues of Bodhisattvas from
this period are characterized by a very strong refinement and technical
sophistication, and are found throughout the region. Extremely rich
architectural remains are visible at the temple of Borobudur (the largest
Buddhist structure in the world, built from around 780 CE), in Java, which has
505 images of the seated Buddha. Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the
Chola rulers of India, before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from
the 13th century.
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